The ensuing complications led Furtwngler to retreat from public life and resign from his position as vice president of the Reich Music Chamber (although he returned to his other posts after a public apology) and eventually resulted in Hindemith leaving Germany altogether.18 Rosenbergs Fighting League had directed its earliest attacks against theater director Max Reinhardt, yet, as late as 1943, the Rosenberg Bureau was complaining about the continued influence of Reinhardts 1920s experiments. The Nazis were masters at staging events that seized the attention and stamped indelible impressions upon the minds of all who participated and observed: the mass arrests and ruthless suppression of political opposition that followed the fiery destruction of the Reichstag building in February 1933; the united march of hundreds of thousands of S.A. brownshirts, Stahlhelm veterans, Reichswehr soldiers, and S.S. blackshirts through the German capital in March 1933; and the awesome orchestration of crowds and symbols during the Nuremberg party rallies.88 In the realm of the arts, spectacles also rose to new heights, leaving their own indelible marks on historical memory. 3rd ed. 133. Der Ewige Jude (1940): Joseph Goebbels Unequalled Monument to Anti-Semitism. Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television 12, no. September 1985, edited by Franz Knipping and Jacques Le Rider, 1531. Originally published as Les voix touffes du IIIe Reich (Arles: Actes Sud, 2005). Stuttgart: Deutsche VerlagsAnstalt, 1985. The Twisted Muse: Musicians and their Music in the Third Reich. Alltag im Dritten Reich: Zur Alltagssthetik im faschistischen Deutschland. wished to avoid conflicts in artistic matters with Nazi Germany. After much heated discussion among congressmen, market 108 Occupation, Cold War, and the Zero Hour researchers, and top military brass about whether the film should be distributed to American civilians, the consensus was: Many people consider [the film] the same sort of hate propaganda fostered by the Nazis.99 Film had the added advantage of potentially yielding profits for the occupying forces. Denazification has even been credited with allowing the basic doctrines of National Socialism (i.e., antisemitism, anti-communism, and militaristic nationalism) to persist and pave the way for a nearly immediate re-emergence of National Socialist sympathy in Germany in the 1950s and 1960s.37 German historian Lutz Niethammer described denazification as an invention of the Americans, assisted by German migr experts, often of Jewish origin or Socialist orientation, with the other occupying powers simply adapting and modifying the principles established in Washington. Saturday, June 17, 2017 2:00pm. The Thingspiele and a wide range of local and national celebrations abounded during the Third Reich, in which architecture, choreography, drama, music, and sound effects were all carefully coordinated so that the largest possible number of those counted among the Volksgemeinschaft could engage in these solemn and festive rituals. Zum Geleit. In BerlinMoskau, 19001950, edited by Irina Antonowa and Jrn Merkert, 9. Robert Scholz, Architektur und bildende Kunst 19331945 (Preussisch Oldendorf: Schtz, 1977), 9, 11. 4 (April 1988): 3942; and Joachim Petsch, Kunst im Dritten Reich (Cologne: Vista Point Verlag, 1987). Quoted in ibid., 46. 125. Hermann Glaser, Deutsche Kultur 19452000 (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1997), 32. Rudolf Eller, Bach-Pflege und Bach-Verstndnis in zwei deutschen Diktaturen, in Bericht ber die wissenschaftliche Konferenz anlsslich des 69. 72. Berlin: Carl Habel, 1947. Image of a German poster by Hermann Grah, Work Triumphs (Arbeit siegt), designed 19331945 (bpk, Berlin/ Kunstbibliothek/Art Resource, NY). Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1992. 360 Works Cited Schulte-Sasse, Linda. The 1991 exhibition Degenerate Art: The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany at the Los Angeles County Museum and its impressive interdisciplinary catalog were important for turning American attention to the phenomenon of arts in Nazi Germany. Owing to the small number of dance historians overall, these studies remained sparse but were nevertheless significant in recognizing the links between the staged mass gatherings of the Nazi Party and the principles of German modern dance. Munich, Bayerischer Schulbuch-Verlag, 1996. Heilbut, Exiled in Paradise, 306; see also Barbara McCloskey, The Exile of George Grosz: Modernism, America, and the One World Order (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015), 2629, 3638. Arthur Koestlers novel Darkness at Noon (published in Britain in 1940 and in the United States in 1941), a fictional account of Soviet purges, received praise for its effectiveness in revealing the horrors of Stalinism. Fighting Windmills on Broadway: Max Reinhardts Exile in the United States. In Fruits of Exile: Central European Intellectual Immigration to America in the Age of Fascism, edited by Richard Bodek and Simon Lewis, 91101. Heskett, Modernism and Archaism, 120127. 19. 112. 87. Jesse, Eckhard. 39. Two brief examples, one in French and one in English, serve to illustrate how postwar perceptions of the break with the past and the emergence of West Germanys new cultural image could be projected. Lachende Erben, toller Tag: Filmkomdie im Dritten Reich. Rave, Paul Ortwin. Musik im Metrum der Macht 3. 62. 62. Yoram Gorlizki and Hans Mommsen, Political (Dis)Orders of Stalinism and National Socialism, in Geyer and Fitzpatrick, Beyond Totalitarianism, 4186. Glenn Watkins, Pyramids at the Louvre: Music, Culture, and Collage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994). Boresch, Hans-Werner. In a twist of fate, the 1938 assassination in Paris of Ernst vom Rath, a German diplomat, by Herschel Grynszpan, a Polish Jew, which served as the rationale for the Kristallnacht pogrom and Hitlers proclamation to end peaceful relations with France, drew unexpected sup- The Exile Experience 55 port for the exhibition. Worum es geht. In Design in Deutschland, 19331945: sthetik und Organisation des Deutschen Werkbundes im Dritten Reich, edited by Sabine Weiler, 89. Brockmann, German Culture, 1112. Wendland, Rave, Paul Ortwin. 20. Lehmann-Haupt, Art under a Dictatorship, 229. The proposal nevertheless represents a fundamental shift in Horkheimer and Adornos thinking, moving away from economic analysis and direct critiques of capitalismperhaps in deference to American sensitivity to such critiqueand toward an acknowledgment of the far more powerful cultural forces that dampened revolutionary and democratic impulses in the Weimar Republic.129 Shortly after submitting the proposal, Horkheimer and Adorno left New York to settle in Los Angeles. And despite the Allies commitment to preserving only the best of German culture, practical concessions left the field wide open for many operations to carry on virtually unchanged from their pre-1945 incarnations. 102. Rainer Stommer, Die inszenierte Volksgemeinschaft: Die Thing-Bewegung im Dritten Reich (Marburg: Jonas-Verlag, 1985). Above all, I am indebted to my family. Hitlers Loss: What Britain and America Gained from Europes Cultural Exiles. Robert Marquant, La politique culturelle franaise en Allemagne de 1945 aux annes cinquante: La csure de 1949, in Knipping and Le Rider, Frankreichs Kulturpolitik, 125126. 117. Saturday, September 25th Sun City Anthem @ Merrill Ranch. Kleiner, Fred S., and Christin J. Mamiya. . Dietrich, Oktoberrevolution, 221222, 227228. Yet in their anger, confusion, and desperation, these exiles struggled more than anyone else to understand how a nation they once called their own, that cultivated the culture they shared and cherished, could have discarded them and exterminated those they left behind. Jeschke, Claudia. 126. Rossdorf: Anabas, 1982. Degenerate Art: The National Socialist Case, Art Journal 50, no. See, for example, Herbert A. Straus, The Movement of People in a Time of Crisis, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 4559; Roger Daniels, American Refugee Policy in Historical Perspective, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 6177; and Cynthia Jaffee McCabe, Wanted by the Gestapo: Saved by America: Varian Fry and the Emergency Rescue Committee, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 7991; Helmut F. Pfanner, Cultural Adaptation in Worldwide Perspective: The Role of Switzerland for the Refugees, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 235248; Bernard Wasserstein, Intellectual migrs in Britain, 19331939, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 249265; Irving Abella and Harold Troper, Canada and the Refugee Intellectual, 19331939, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 257269; Paula Jean Draper, Muses behind Barbed Wire: Canada and the Interned Refugees, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 271281; Renata Berg-Pan, Shanghai Chronicle: Nazi Refugees in China, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 283302; Judith Laikin Elkin, The Reception of the Muses in the CircumCaribbean, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 291302; Ronald C. Newton, Das andere Deutschland: The Anti-Fascist Exile Network in Southern South America, in Jackman and Borden, Muses Flee Hitler, 303313; see also Palmier, Weimar in Exile, chapters 4, 11, and 12. The Suppression of Classical Architecture in Postwar Germany. Architectural Review 173 (1983): 3338. Richard Leppert, trans. As attacks on certain composers in Germany became known, concertgoers in Prague showed their solidarity with the victims by supporting performances of works of Jewish composers, of Schoenbergs school, and of Krenek, Hindemith, and Stravinsky.77 From 1933 to 1936, only the most prominent of those fleeing to France, such as conductor Bruno Walter, were offered French citizenship immediately after arriving. Monod, Settling Scores, 5759. The Faustian Bargain: The Art World in Nazi Germany. This adherence proved tenacious, even as other branches of historical scholarship rejected these premises and evidence emerged that weakened their foundations. Wild accusations followed in the local pressof communist activism, foreignness, primitivism, machine-worship, insanity, and perversity that would be revisited and expanded in the Degenerate Art exhibition more than a decade laterall of which resonated with the overall public discontent arising from the inflation. 326 Works Cited Brockmann, Stephen, and Frank Trommler, eds. Hellmut LehmannHaupt, a German-born and German-trained professor of library science at Columbia who worked for MFAA in Berlin, warned his OMGUS superiors that even if the Germans lukewarm reception of modern art could be explained by the Nazis total manipulation of art, it also revealed the failure of denazification and reorientation. And the bands know how to bring the party atmosphere in the tents to boiling point and get the guests dancing on the beer benches. 51. Reich: Dokumente der Unterwerfung, edited by Georg Bussmann, 183216. Almost twenty years after the appearance of Willetts book, an exhibit on German expressionism traced the styles origin to 1925 and categorized the artists pursuing it after World War I as for the most part outspoken political activists, although some of the works included, especially those of Dix, Grosz, and Gert Wollheim, would seem better situated in a display of Neue Sachlichkeit. Paul Vogt, Erika Billeter, Gnter Aust, and Dieter Honisch (Munich: Haus der Kunst, 1977), 1115; Otto Andreas Schreiber, Die Fabrikausstellungen der dreiiger Jahre, in Vogt et al., Die Dreissiger Jahre, 9697; Clinefelter, Artists for the Reich; Christoph Zuschlag, Entartete Kunst: Ausstellungsstrategien im Nazi-Deutschland (Worms: Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1995); Christoph Zuschlag, An Educational Exhibition: The Precursors of Notes to Pages 2629 257 Entartete Kunst and Its Individual Venues, in Degenerate Art: The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany, ed. Fascism and Theatre: Comparative Studies on the Aesthetics and Politics of Performance in Europe, 19251945. The Only Path for Architecture. Oppositions 14 (1978): 4043. 189. Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte 22. Giles Scott-Smith and Hans Krabbendam (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 269282. Jeffrey Herf, in his 1984 book, Reactionary Modernism, was one of the first to explore the German symbiosis of technology and romanticism, following Ralf Dahrendorf s and David Schoenbaums observations that the National Socialists had deployed modern means to further antimodern agendas. He accepted an assignment from the Museum of Modern Art to analyze Nazi war propaganda, leading to his 1942 essay, Propaganda and the Nazi War Film, which paid special attention to Leni Riefenstahls Triumph of the Will in addition to selected war documentaries. Macdonald, Dwight. Courtade, Francis, and Pierre Cadars. In order to realize these goals, they had to embrace the neocorporatist impulse,176 overcoming political and social divisions within their own artistic communities and forming a professional solidarity with all those employed in their artistic medium. Bushart, Magdalena, Bernd Nicolai, and Wolfgang Schuster, eds. 7. McCabe, Wanted by the Gestapo, 81. 1, edited by Jan Tabor, 1416. 212. See also Mommsen, Accomplishments and Limitations; and Hughes, Sea Change, 125. The industry was finally nationalized only in 1942 under the special circumstances of war. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. Mainz: Are Edition, 2006. Arthur D. Kahn, Betrayal: Our Occupation of Germany, 2nd ed. Review Article: National Socialism, Art and Power in the 1930s. Past and Present 164 (August 1999): 244265. 13. Ever since the end of World War II, the discovery and rediscovery of all these phenomena fueled the conviction that a tightly organized bureaucracy mandated the promotion of pure and healthy German art and the elimination of degeneracy, which was understood as all things modern and progressive. 166. See Weiler, Design in Deutschland 193345, 1011, 3438, 6468. Mller, Wigman and National Socialism, 6573; and Manning and Benson, Interrupted Continuities, 3045. American baby boomers came of age at a time when the geopolitical role of the United States revealed fissures in the good-versus-evil construction on which the concept of totalitarianism was based, and the moral dilemmas of the Vietnam War brought 134 Totalitarianism, Intentionalism, Fascism the generational conflict to a dizzying climax. 3 (2003): 525594; Michael H. Kater, Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 122128; and Kater, Twisted Muse, 183. 40 What Is Known and What Is Believed In studying the Holocaust and its impact on the arts, arts disciplines bound to established practices turned their life-and-works investigations toward an intense preoccupation with the victims of National Socialism, discovering an ever-increasing number of lesser-known exiles and those who perished in the camps and adding investigations of their lives and their creations to this growing body of scholarship. : Zur Einfhrung in den Sammelband Faschistische Architekturen, in Frank, Faschistische Architekturen, 14. Dorothy Thompson, Culture Under the Nazis, Foreign Affairs 14, no. Yet no one has been able to find any evidence that Nazi-era audiences or music critics ever picked up on any Jewish traits in the character of Beckmesser.88 Focusing on successes rather than failures, William Granges study of comedy in the Third Reich opened up possibilities for a diachronic as well as a synchronic comparison, and also gave a nod to mass consumption. But these conditions also created a perceived need for intellectual validation, fostering a culture that equated composition to scientific research and disdaining musical works that exhibited comprehensibility and mass appeal.94 The singling out of Schoenberg as the guru of this new compositional philosophy was the result of the concerted efforts of two of his disciples, Ren Leibowitz and Theodor Adorno. 21. Fhre, Franzsische Besatzungspolitik in Berlin, 197; Flix Lusset, Sartre in Berlin (Januar 1948): Zur Arbeit der franzsischen Kulturmission in Berlin, in Franzsische Kulturpolitik in Deutschland 19451949: Berichte und Dokumente, ed. September 1985, edited by Franz Knipping and Jacques Le Rider, 265274. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1972. . Providence: Berghahn Books, 1996. 5, The Late Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 1418. 204. Ehrhard Bahr, Nazi Cultural Politics: Intentionalism vs. Functionalism, in Glenn Cuomo, National Socialist Cultural Policy, 522. 27. 270 Notes to Pages 7983 152. Originally published as Architekt der Weltherrschaft: Die Endziele Hitlers (Dsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 1976). Der Film im 3. Translated by Harry Zohn. Brecht and his composer-collaborator Hanns Eisler, who had also left Germany after being targeted as a communist, managed to break into the film industry with the assistance of Fritz Lang, who was by this time well established as a successful Hollywood director.70 The United States had also initially been cautious in maintaining civil relations with Germany, however, and the Brecht-Eisler-Lang collaboration, with its unequivocal anti-Nazi message, would not have been possible were it not for the fact that the United States had entered the war in 1941, closing Germany off as an export market for American films and opening the door to anti-German subject matter.71 Prior to that, Hollywood made great efforts to keep the German market open right up to the attack on Pearl Harbor (fig. 4. 2. Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1981. Journal of the American Musicological Society 56, no. Fox, Jo. Ruppert, Wolfgang. 1 (Fall 1938): 4953; Dwight Macdonald, Soviet Society and its Cinema, Partisan Review 6, no. Translated by Robert Chandler. 56. Musik und Musikpolitik im faschistischen Deutschland. 2 (May 1981): 3441. Die Moderne im Nationalsozialismus. 161. Niethammer, Lutz. Daniel Knopp, NS-Filmpropaganda: Wunschbild und Feindbild in Leni Riefenstahls Triumph des Willens und Veit Harlans Jud Sss (Marburg: Tectum, 2004); Susan Tegel, Nazis and the Cinema (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007); Manuel Kppen and Erhard Schtz, eds., Kunst der Propaganda: Der Film im Dritten Reich, Publikationen zur Zeitschrift fr Germanistik 15 (Bern: Peter Lang, 2007); and Ian Garden, The Third Reichs Celluloid War: Propaganda in Nazi Feature Films, Documentaries, and Television (Stroud, UK: The History Press, 2012).